1500年以后，有许多迹象表明世界历史的新时代正在开始，例如美洲的发现和第一批欧洲企业在亚洲的出现。这个“新时代”被众多文明中一个文明的惊人成功所主宰，那就是欧洲文明。在所有国家，事件之间的相互联系越来越紧密，但这可以用欧洲的努力来解释。欧洲人最终成为“地球的主人”，他们用自己的掌握使世界成为一体。这导致了一个统一的世界历史，可以检测到今天。政治、帝国建设和军事扩张只是其中的一小部分。除了全球经济一体化之外，还有一个更重要的过程正在进行：假设和想法的传播。结果是“一个世界”，独立文明时代已经结束。1500年以来的几个世纪的历史可以说是一系列的战争和暴力斗争。很明显，不同国家的男人并不比他们的前辈更喜欢别人。然而，他们比他们的祖先更相似，这是我们现在所说的现代化的结果。人们也可以说，世界是欧洲化的，因为现代化是一个有欧洲渊源的思想和技术问题。世界历史的统一是随着欧洲的现代化而开始的。欧洲的巨大变化是近代历史的起点。农业在经济上继续占主导地位。农业进步主要表现为两种形式：市场导向和技术创新。它们是相互联系的。附近人口众多意味着一个市场，因此是一种激励。即使在15世纪，所谓的低地国家的居民已经是精耕细作技术的领导者。更好的排水系统为更好的牧场和更多的动物种群开辟了道路。农业改良有利于大农场的土地重组、小农户数量的减少、雇佣雇佣雇佣劳动力以及在建筑、排水和机械方面的高资本投资。在十六世纪后期，对人口增长对缓慢增长的资源造成的压力的一种反应是促进移民。
到1800年在美国，欧洲人对移居海外的新土地做出了巨大贡献。这在16世纪就已经明显了那时世界商业开始了长期的扩张一直持续到1930年。一开始，经济重心进一步从欧洲南部转移到西北欧，从地中海转移到大西洋，这一点已经被注意到了。其中一个原因是政治上的麻烦和战争，比如16世纪早期毁了意大利。16世纪伟大的商业成功故事属于安特卫普，尽管它在几十年的政治和经济灾难后崩溃了。在17世纪，阿姆斯特丹和伦敦超过了它。在每一种情况下，基于人口稠密的腹地的重要贸易为制造业、服务业和银行业的多元化提供了利润。阿姆斯特丹银行和英格兰银行在17世纪已经是国际经济力量。其他从事信贷和金融业务的银行和商业机构也围绕着它们。利率降低了，汇票这种中世纪的发明得到了广泛的使用，并成为国际贸易的主要金融工具。 This was the beginning of the increasing use of paper, instead of bullion. In the eighteenth century came the first European paper currencies and the invention of the check. Joint stock companies generated another form of negotiable security, their own shares. Quotation of these in London coffee-houses in the seventeenth century was overtaken by the foundation of the London Stock Exchange. By 1800 similar institutions existed in many other countries. It was also the time of some spectacular disastrous investment projects, one of which was the great English South Sea Bubble. But all the time the world was growing more commercial, more used to the idea of employing money to make money, and was supplying itself with the apparatus of modern capitalism. One effect quickly appeared in the much greater attention paid to commercial questions in diplomatic negotiation from the later seventeenth century and in the fact that countries were prepared to fight over them. The English and Dutch went to war over trade in 1652. This opened a long era during which they, the French and Spanish, fought again and again over quarrels in which questions of trade were important. Governments not only looked after their merchants by going to war to uphold their interests, but also intervened in other ways in the working of the commercial economy. One advantage they could offer were monopoly privileges to a company under a charter; this made the raising of capital easier by offering some security for a return. Such activities closely involved government and therefore the concerns of businessmen shaped both, policy and law. The most impressive structural development in European commerce was the sudden new importance to it of overseas trade from the second half of the seventeenth century onwards.
这是从地中海到北欧的经济活动转向的一部分。到了十七世纪晚期。较上升的人口和足够运输的一些保证（水总是比陆路）慢慢建立了谷物的国际贸易。造船本身促进了这种商品作为螺距，亚麻或木材的运动。涉及超过欧洲消费;所有这些都在殖民帝国的发展中进行。在十八世纪，已经出现了海洋经济和国际贸易界，这是一项业务 - 以及对地球的战斗和斗争。在这种经济中，奴隶，大多数黑人非洲人都扮演了一个重要和生长的部分。在欧洲本身，奴隶制依然枯萎了。现在它是在其他大陆进行巨大的延伸。 Soon a permanent slaving station was set up in West Africa. This shows the rapid discovery of the profitability of the new traffic. It was already clear that it was a business of brutality. As the search for slaves went further inland, it became simpler to rely on local potentates who would round up captives and barter them wholesale. Early industrial centers grew by accretion, often around the centers of established European industries closely related to agriculture. This long continued to be true. These old trades had created concentrations of supporting industry. Antwerp had been the great port of entry to Europe for English cloth; as a result, finishing and dyeing establishments appeared there to work up further commodities flowing through the port. The twentieth century needs no reminders that social change can quickly follow economic change. We have little belief in the immutability of social forms and institutions. Three hundred years ago, many men and women believed them to be virtually God-given and the result was that although social changes took place in the aftermath of inflation, they were muffled by the persistence of old forms. Superficially much of European society remained unchanged between 1500 and 1800. Yet the economic realities underlying changed a great deal. Rural life had already begun to show this in some countries before 1500. As agriculture became more and more a matter of business, traditional rural society had to change. Forms were usually preserved. Although feudal lordship still existed in France in the 1780s, it was by then less a social reality than an economic device.
欧洲大致沿易北河分为两部分。到1800年，西方国家缓慢地向更开放的社会形式发展。在东方，独裁政府掌管着农业社会，在那里，少数土地所有者对很大程度上被束缚的农民享有巨大的权力。这个地区的城镇不像西方几个世纪以来那样繁荣。它们往往是农村海上的岛屿，负担过重，无法从农村吸引所需的劳动力，因为农奴制的范围太广。在波兰和俄罗斯的大片土地上，甚至连货币经济都几乎不存在。这种东西方之间的差异在很大程度上暗示了欧洲后期的历史。在16世纪到18世纪的这段时间里，曾经强大的国家排名下降，即西班牙、瑞典、荷兰和奥斯曼帝国。这导致了新的大国的崛起，如奥匈帝国、英国、法国、普鲁士和俄国。他们崛起的因素是他们的地理、金融体系、军事战略和一种新的官僚体制。 Laws ensured the people¹s security , whereas religion did not interfere. Furthermore a new form of government was introduced, where there was more than just an exclusive group at power. With these changes a new system of modern bureaucracy began to rise. With that a major contradiction seemed to come up. How could capitalism, promoting free enterprise, and bureaucracy, which was a complex system of regulations and restrictions, coexist? However, taking a closer look at today¹s capitalistic societies one can clearly detect an advantage of that constellation. In Germany for example the capitalistic business world is strongly restricted by government regulations, decreasing the companies¹ profits, but benefiting society. In Brazil, on the other hand, where the so called “capitalismo salvage” prevails, the business world lives of the people, leaving them in poor conditions. The ³Treaty of Utrecht² benefited most of central Europe by establishing a balance of power and restoring peace. Russia benefited of Sweden¹s decline, and a large bureaucratic machinery collected a lot of taxes. Ivan the Terrible build up an extremely efficient system of espionage, which preserved his own power and increased state revenues. Likewise, Prussia prospered from its modern legal system, its strong state apparatus, where bureaucrats were state servants with some duties and many privileges. Prussia was also known for its disciplined army with advanced weapons. One could say that Prussia was a very well organized efficient power.
奥地利匈牙利还能够长期保持其地位作为一个强大的力量。由于王子与人民之间存在的权力，官僚主义仍然有效。在这种情况下，金融，地理和军事战略的要素并不对本组织的崛起至关重要。法国保持有效，理性的官僚主义，由皇家官员组成，他们作为国家当局与国王一起行事。收入的收集是由官僚主义的直接和严格执行。虽然法国是一个突出的强大力量，但它也面临着许多问题。他们的军事战略非常薄弱。在陆地和海洋权力之间分配了抗辩的收入分配;在两个地区创造平庸的军事。因此，法国无法转向进攻。 The taxes collected were not enough to uphold the maintenance of the state. France’s financial situation was inferior to that of England’s since they had no system of credit which England already developed. France also relied heavily on the importation of goods from colonies. This constant trade drained the economy because it called for a strong navy which was not possible. England became superior to France in many ways. This was largely due to the industrial revolution that made England a powerful force while France suffered because of structural problems. England experienced success in the coal, iron, textile, and steel industry. England was the leading nation in Europe in mining and heavy manufacturing. Then came more innovations such as the invention of the steam engine in 1712. This success led only to more prosperity in many areas. The rise of the mentioned powers was greatly influenced by the adaptation of a new system of bureaucracy. This new system utilized at least one of the important factors that brought about the rise of these nations: finance, geography, or military strategy. England proves to be the best example of this modern bureaucratic system because it used all three elements while striving for maximum efficiency and power.
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