论文：管理中的女性|学校努力

尽管采用平等机会立法，但性别史仍处于工作场所的证据。在考虑其在工作场所的影响时，性感是对社会的特别关注。性别歧视始终是劳动力市场的特殊问题，特别是在形成资本主义。在20世纪的最后一半，由于进入劳动力市场的妇女的增加，这一点特别突出。这引起了对1975年的性别来通过的平等机会的立法的必要性。它表示，歧视一个人的性别，无论是男性还是女性，无论是男性还是女性都是非法就业，工会会员，教育，提供商品，服务，广告和支付。在这篇文章中，讨论将涵盖妇女在公司中持有大量工作队伍的主题，而是似乎似乎有任何权力。

障碍职业的障碍，如果女性更喜欢对男人的工作不同，而且自律是议会行为以来的平等工资以及改变。这篇论文只会专注于U.K.性别歧视问题。性别歧视意味着一个人因性行为而以不太有利的方式对待。一个很好的例子是采取两个虚构角色，琼斯先生和夫人。琼斯想去游泳;他们到达游泳池，他们发现琼斯太太被指控o.a.p.虽然他们既相同，琼斯先生也必须支付全额价格。这是因为女性成为六十岁的养老金领取者，而男性不能在六十五岁之前获得益处。性别歧视不仅存在于老一辈内，而且在整个年龄范围内也很明显。在立法通过20世纪60年代的年轻女孩之后，在O-Levels之后离开了学校，以获得强大的社会信息，以至于他们的职业生涯已经为他们设置为婚姻和母性（Pascall 1995：2）。他们唯一的工作是乏味的低薪工作（秘书），只期待他们会遇到一个男人，有一个家庭并安顿下来。 Statistics show that in 1971, 51% of married women did not work compared to 29% in 1993 (Pascall 1995: 3). Women now hold 46% of the labor work force, with young women seeing housework more of a part-time rather than a full time job. This is an enormous social change for the family giving women less dependence on marriages which are increasingly falling apart day by day and a greater command over the increasing area of technology and resources. With more women getting jobs, it encourages other women who were reluctant to move into the labour market to do the same and become more career minded. Although woman now make up 46% of the English work force only 3% of woman hold chief高管职位。在过去的20年里，这个数字只增加了2%（米尔德鲁1992:17）。这里要提出的一点是，随着管理职位等级的增加，担任这些职位的妇女人数减少。很明显，这意味着女性没有男性那样的威望和影响力，因为她们在高级别工作中的地位很小。我们都听过男人在某个时候说，“我就是不懂女人”，然而1993年，在司法机构中，91名男子中只有5名女高等法院法官，496名男子中只有28名女巡回法官（Pascall 1995:2）。由于媒体的关注，女性确实有机会获得职业。1980年，妇女占专业和管理工作的12-14%。1990年，这一数字上升到32%的管理人员和40%的专业人员。另一方面，与男性相比，女性似乎属于不同的领域；他们占教师和图书馆的62%，但只有25%的商业和金融专业人员，令人震惊的是只有5%的工程师和技术人员。教师是一个合格的职位，90%的小学教师和60%的中学教师是女性，但50%的小学校长和80%的中学校长是男性。在大学里，这也是同样的道理，在大学里只有5%的教授是女性（PASCALL 1995：3）。不同工作中的性别隔离可以分为纵向和横向两个方面。纵向隔离是指在某一职位的权力等级中的性别隔离。女性往往处于职业垂直隔离的低端。横向隔离是在不同职业的传播中性别的隔离。人们通常发现，女性主导教学，而男性主导工程。欧盟统计局劳工调查的数据显示，当妇女通过增加她们在某一特定职业中的任职人数来打破横向隔离时，纵向隔离就会牢固确立。

这是由1911年的所有职员和打字员的3％的事实表明了。到1971年，情况逆转，女子主导了这一领域。一旦女性的数量增加，办公室工作已经降级，成为桌面的低薪死亡结局。打破以适应妇女能力的想法（Mildrew 1992：12）的活动。教育资格是一个想要一个想要职业生涯（男人或女人）的人必须。20年前，女孩会在O-Levels结束时留下教育。在1991/92 GCSE结果中，42.7％的女孩与34.1％的男孩接受了5级或更多的A-C成绩，16.1％，而14.4％的男孩在A级接受了3次或更多的人。在过去的21年里，大学女生的数量增加了几乎是男性增加的两倍，占学生人口的48％。在学位等级46-48％的医学/商业和金融学生是女性，但只有12％的工程或技术。只需在中学或大学教育的教室里看，这些男人/女性主导地区都清楚地看到了。 91% of sociology classes are female dominated and about 90% of computer science / physics, classes are male dominated (Pascall 1995: 4). The Sex Discrimination Act is in power to help woman in a number of ways and lets them into previously closed doors. However due to the fact that most legal institutions are male dominated it is not quite as clear cut as it may seem on the outside. The law is often interpreted restrictivly meaning a woman may have to fight an unequal battle with her employer and even if they come out victorious little compensation is received and she may be victimized at work in the aftermath. A major need for the discrimination act is to try to help break down the presence of what is known as the glass ceiling’. This is where men get promoted and go further up the managerial hierarchy while woman get to a certain position and cannot climb any further. Although they can see the men climbing further up the company they cannot break the glass ceiling themselves (Gregg 1991: 8). A study called Indsco’ in a large industrial conglomerate lead by Rosabeth Moss Kanter (A management professor at Harvard) in 1977, recognized that people who work in large organizations have a tendency to hire and promote those who resemble themselves (Mildrew 1992: 17). Unfortunately some men feel uncomfortable with women being their equals and since men dominate managerial levels they have much more control over people’s careers beneath them. If men do not recognize women as their equals, then women are overlooked for transfer or promotion, find themselves directed into female’ job areas and are not offered a challenge. Men use strategies to cope with women such as patronizing them, not listening to them seriously, being over protective and shielding them from dangerous situations so they never have the knowledge of how to cope (Allen 1993 p26). The Employment Act 1978 gives women going through pregnancy and child birth the right to have time off with no loss of position. This is only given however to woman who have a career involving full time and continuous employment and stops just 29 weeks after childbirth (Pascall 1995: 4). Parental leave, flexible hours and care of the child in sickness and health is left for the employer and employee to discuss. This is a very complex problem because once a child is born it must have the proper care and attention. Nursery provisions for women who want to go back to work are appalling. Only 2% of work places have nursery facilities and the male dominated government seems to think that the problem doesn’t exist! Shocking statistics show that for every 14 females that work full time there is only one which has children between the ages of 0 and 15 years old. i.e. There is 4,200,000 woman with no children in full time work and only 300,000 woman with children between the age of 0 to 15 (Pascall 1995: 4).

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教师的角色答案

考虑到大多数女性希望至少有一个孩子，将会有很多女性从事低薪工作。像医学这样需要高强度的课程来积累职业知识的职业实际上意味着禁止有孩子的女性从事。即使是传统的女性工作，如护士，也没有一个职业可以舒适地容纳一个女人和她的孩子。由于对大多数女性来说，这一切都有点过分，她们肯定会转向兼职工作，这将受到较低等级和薪酬的惩罚。1975年，同工同酬法生效。这使得因性别不同而为同一工作提供不同的工资是非法的。男性的全职工资比女性大幅下降。从那以后，这一差距一直在缩小。新收入调查(NES)显示，1980年，男性的平均收入比女性高出40%，1992年差距缩小至25%。从事低薪工作的女性，以前的工资比男性低得多，现在已经涨到了与男性相同的工资水平，有时甚至更高。 However in high flying jobs there still is a large wage difference. The NES showed that woman’s hourly earnings where on an average 70.9% of men’s in 1990. The problem being is that since woman go into different areas of work than men it may be very difficult to compare the skills and amount of work they do to claim equal pay. We can see that even with the law, there are many loop holes that clever employees can seek. This isn’t the only thing that stands in the way of woman who want a career, there are many other obstacles. Society is a very powerful instrument; people get molded by the society they are in. It changes the way people think and act. Also (From personal experiance) many children are directed to appropriate traditional’ subjects by their secondary socialization in schools particularly by old fashioned’ teachers. Unfortunately the law is not beneficial to everyone. It is not allowed to be broken, but there are numerous ways of stretching it! A good example of this is D.Quinnen vs Mr. J.H. Hovell. Mr. Hovell hired 2 women and 1 man to work in his store at Christmas time. The 2 woman got paid more than the man. Mr. Quinnen complained and was dismissed; he claimed equal pay and sex discrimination. Mr. Quinnen took this case to the industrial tribunal (I.T.). At a preliminary hearing the tribunal dismissed Mr. Quinnens claims on the grounds that he was not employed by Mr. Hovell as the definition of employment was that there was a contract of service’ which Mr. Quinnens did not have. Mr. Quinnens actually then to took his case to the Employment Appeal Tribunal which awarded him œ530 (E.O.C 1989: 63), but most people would not take the case this far after getting turned away by the I.T. A对女人是有用的规则,法律规则的先例,如果一个女人赢得了一个前几乎一样的女人可以想去法院了,前面的情况将被用作一个基地的情况。有了这一点，女性几乎可以在上法庭之前就看到案件的结果，从而从男性同行那里避免自己受到伤害。从我们所看到的情况来看，男性的主导地位似乎是女性在工作场所表现不佳的原因。然而，这可能是一种片面的观点。一旦一个女人得到了一个有权力的工作，她可能会采取“我必须努力工作才能得到我现在的位置，为什么其他人的态度不应该这样做，会阻止其他女人承担责任。”女性也比男性倾向于更谨慎,英国天然气进行的一项调查显示,当机会出现在他们的公司想要一份更有权力的女人只会申请这个职位如果他们整个安装工作标准与申请的人即使他们没有填满一半的描述(Allen 1993: 30)。女性给自己设置的另一个障碍似乎是她们自己的自信。一项研究录下了7个大学教师会议的录音，发现在有人闯入前，男性的贡献在11到17秒之间，而女性的贡献在3到10秒之间。女人也会使用恭敬的标签语，比如“你不觉得吗?”和“不是吗?”比男性更频繁，而且不愿意委派工作，因此他们超负荷工作(Mildrew 1992: 18)。 In reflection to the examples given evidence shows that the effectiveness of introducing the numerous acts of parliament have not been entirely successful on implementation. Trends show that throughout education females have been directed towards traditional feminine subjects. Lack of fundamental education needed to back up university courses have reflected women’s immobility to achieve positions of high statues in the whole range of occupations. Mature woman share this problem as lack of qualifications in appropriate subjects prevents them from achieving powerful positions. Clearly, it can be seen that women are getting the same wage as men in low paying jobs since the Sexual Discrimination act was passed in 1975 but there is still a long way to go until woman in managerial jobs get an equal wage to their counterparts. The fact that women are entering different job areas to men e.g. Teaching / Social working, means that even if a woman takes a company to court because she believes she is not getting paid as much as a male employee, even though she is using the same skills and has the same work load, this is very hard to prove if the two employees are not doing the same job. With most woman wanting babies, and leaving full time work to have a child and probably only taking up part-time work after it is born, it gives directors of companies a very bad opinion of women in powerful jobs as they believe that as soon as the woman has worked her way up she will leave the company due to maternity leave and never be able to keep up the same quality of work as before. Women tend to naturally set obstacles in their own way and it seems that the only way to get a powerful, influential, prestigious job is to never have a baby and are never get married. The law is not much use for woman in power as there is so many males above them in any company. The usefulness of the law can be seen however in the fact of precedent’ where any previous case of a woman taking a company to court for sexual discrimination or equal pay and winning may be considered in a similar court case. The glass ceiling is a major obstacle preventing woman from achieving high status professions. However since the law has been in power I believe that the glass ceiling is cracking but it’s going to take a lot more years to see any kind of noticeable improvements in woman’s careers.